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Charles Darwin

Charles Darwin

Famous English people

Charles Robert Darwin (12 February 1809 – 19 April 1882) was an English naturalist whose revolutionary theory laid the foundation for both the modern theory of evolution and the principle of common descent by proposing natural selection as a mechanism. He published this proposal in 1859 in the book The Origin of Species, which remains his most famous work. A worldwide sea voyage aboard HMS Beagle and observations on the Galapagos Islands in particular provided inspiration and much of the data on which he based his theory.

Early life

Charles Darwin was born in Shrewsbury, Shropshire, England, on 12 February 1809. He was the fifth of six children of Robert and Susannah Darwin (née Wedgwood), a family of the Unitarian church.

His mother died when he was only eight and the next year he became a boarder at the Shrewsbury School. After finishing school, Darwin went to Edinburgh University in 1825 to study medicine. At Edinburgh Darwin began to neglect his medical studies, instead developing an interest in naturalism.

Realising Darwin would not become a physician his father enrolled him at Christ's College, Cambridge in 1827 on a BA course to qualify as a clergyman. This was a sensible career move at a time when a "living" as an Anglican parson provided a comfortable income and when most naturalists in England were clergymen who saw it as part of their duties to explore the wonders of God's creation.

At Cambridge Darwin's continued interest in naturalism led him to met Revd. John Stevens Henslow, professor of botany. Darwin subsequently joined his natural history course. When exams loomed Charles focused on his studies, becoming particularly enthused by the set texts by Paley which included the argument of divine design in nature. Darwin passed his finals in January 1831 with the help of private tuition from Henslow.

Henslow recommended Darwin for the position of gentleman's companion to Robert FitzRoy, the captain of HMS Beagle which was departing in December on a two-year expedition to chart the coastline of South America and would give him opportunities as a naturalist. The voyage eventually stretched to five years.

Journey on the Beagle

Darwin's work during the Beagle expedition let him study at first hand geology, fossils and a multitude of living organisms as well as meeting native peoples. He methodically collected an enormous number of specimens, many new to science, which established his reputation as a naturalist and made him one of the precursors of ecology. His detailed notes formed the basis for his later work as well as providing social, political, and anthropological insights into the areas he visited.

Return to celebrity and science

While Darwin was still on the voyage, Henslow had carefully fostered his former pupil's reputation by giving selected naturalists access to the fossil specimens and even having Darwin's geological writings privately printed for distribution. By the time that the Beagle returned on 2 October 1836 Darwin was a sought-after celebrity in scientific circles. He visited his home in Shrewsbury and his father drew on investments to provide Charles with a suitable allowance. After consulting Henslow in Cambridge who would work on the plants, Darwin went round the London institutions to find the best available naturalists to describe his other collections for early publication.

Darwin read his first paper to the Geological Society of London on 4 January 1837, showing that Chile, and the South American land-mass, was slowly rising. On the same date Darwin presented his mammal and bird specimens to the Society. In February 1837 Lyell Darwin was elected to the Council of the Geographical Society. Darwin continued speculating on transmutation (the mutation of one species into another) in his "Red Notebook" which he had begun on the Beagle.

On 29 January 1839 Darwin married his cousin Emma Wedgwood at Maer in an Anglican ceremony arranged to also suit the Unitarians. After first living in Gower Street, London, the couple moved on 17 September 1842 to Down House, in Downe, Kent (which is now open to public visits, south of Orpington). The Darwins had ten children, three of whom died early.

Family, work and development of theory

Darwin was now settled with a private income, an eminent geologist in the scientific élite of clerical naturalists with a mass of work in hand, writing up his findings and theories and superintending the multi-volume "Zoology" describing his collections. He was convinced by his theory of evolution, but vividly aware that transmutation was associated with radical democratic agitators seeking to overthrow society and publication could mean ruin. He embarked on extensive experiments with plants and consultations with animal husbanders including pigeon fanciers and pig breeders, in an attempt to discover holes in the hypothesis. He took his time with careful research until he had enough evidence, knowing that a great deal of opposition would erupt when he presented his theory.

In December 1839 as Emma's first pregnancy progressed, Charles fell ill. For the rest of his life he suffered episodes of stomach pains, vomiting, severe boils and other symptoms which frequently limited his working time to a few minutes a day or forced him to stop working and recuperate.

Darwin made attempts to explain his theory to close friends, but they were slow to show interest and seemed unable to grasp the idea of selection without a divine selector. In 1842 Darwin formulated a short "Pencil Sketch" of his theory and by 1844 had written a 240 page "Essay" which provided an expanded version of his early ideas on natural selection. Later that year the anonymous publication of Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation by Robert Chambers began changing public opinion on Transmutation.

In the spring of 1856 Charles Lyell, eminent geologist and supporter of Darwin, read a paper on the Introduction of species by Alfred Russel Wallace, a naturalist working in Borneo. Lyell urged Darwin to publish his theory to establish precedence.

As Darwin worked on his Natural Selection manuscript in December 1857, Wallace wrote to ask if it would delve into human origins. Sensitive to Lyell's fears on this, Darwin responded that "I think I shall avoid the whole subject, as so surrounded with prejudices, though I fully admit that it is the highest & most interesting problem for the naturalist". He encouraged Wallace's theorising, saying "without speculation there is no good & original observation", adding that "I go much further than you".

On 18 June 1858 he received a paper from Wallace describing the evolutionary mechanism, with a request to send it on to Lyell. Darwin did so, shocked that he had been "forestalled" and though Wallace had not asked for publication, offering to send it to any journal that Wallace chose. He put matters in the hands of Lyell and his friend the botanist Joseph Dalton Hooker, who agreed on a joint presentation at the Linnean Society on 1 July of On the Tendency of Species to form Varieties; and on the Perpetuation of Varieties and Species by Natural Means of Selection.

The initial announcement of the theory gained little immediate attention. For the next thirteen months, Darwin would labour to produce what was originally to be an abstract of his "big book on species".

Publication of Origin of Species

Receiving constant encouragement from his scientific friends, Darwin finally finished his abstract, and Lyell arranged to have it published by John Murray. The title was agreed as "On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection" and when the book went on sale to the trade on 22 November 1859 the stock of 1,250 copies was oversubscribed.

The book itself only briefly alluded to the fact that man, too, would evolve as with the other organisms described in his book. Darwin wrote in deliberate understatement that "light will be thrown on the origin of man and his history".

Reviewers were quick to pick out the unstated implications of "men from monkeys", though a Unitarian review was favourable and The Times published a glowing review by Thomas Huxley which included swipes at Richard Owen, leader of the scientific establishment Huxley was trying to overthrow. The Church of England scientific establishment reacted against the book, and Darwin's old Cambridge tutors Sedgwick and Henslow expressed their disappointment in him. Then seven liberal Anglican theologians including the Reverend Harry Baden-Powell produced a manifesto titled Essays and Reviews which supported the Origin and declared that miracles were irrational, drawing much of the fire away from Darwin.

To many, Darwin's view of nature became associated with one in which the distinction between man and beast was nonexistent. Darwin himself did not personally defend his theories in public, though he read eagerly about the continuing debates. He was constantly in ill health, and mustered support through letters and correspondence . A core circle of scientific friends – Huxley, Charles Lyell, Joseph Dalton Hooker, and American botanist Asa Gray – actively pushed his work onto the fore of the scientific and public stage, and defended him against his many mounting critics. Unexpectedly to Darwin, his theory became not only a key scientific controversy of the era, but also resonated with various movements at the time, becoming a key fixture of popular culture of the period (and beyond). As attention and controversy gathered, the book was translated into numerous languages and went through a number of reprints, becoming a staple scientific text accessible to a newly curious middle class. It would prove to be the most controversial and discussed scientific book ever written.

While illness continued to dog him and his fame grew, Darwin continued his struggle to research and write about problems arising from his theory.

Darwin died in Downe, Kent, England, on 19 April 1882 and was given a state funeral. William Spottiswoode, President of the Royal Society arranged for Darwin to be buried in Westminster Abbey near Isaac Newton, despite Darwin's wishes that he be buried in Downe.

Legacy

Charles Darwin's theory of evolution based upon natural selection changed the thinking of countless fields of study from biology to anthropology.

His work was extremely controversial at the time he published it and many during his time didn't take it seriously. Darwin's theory of evolution was a significant blow to creationism and notions of intelligent design prevalent in 19th century science. The idea that there was no line to draw between man and beast would forever make Darwin a symbol of iconoclasm who removed humanity's privileged role in the center of the universe. To opponents, Darwin would be "the monkey man", often depicted as part ape.

As a humorous celebration of the theory of evolution, the annual Darwin Award is bestowed on individuals who "aid the process of evolution by demonstrating their unfitness" through fatally stupid actions.

In Australia's Northern Territory, the capital city (originally Palmerston) was renamed Darwin to commemorate the author's 1839 visit there, and the territory now also boasts Charles Darwin University and Charles Darwin National Park.

Darwin was given particular recognition in 2000 when his image appeared on the Bank of England ten pound note, replacing Charles Dickens. His impressive and supposedly hard-to-forge beard was reportedly a contributing factor in this choice.

Darwin came fourth in the 100 Greatest Britons poll sponsored by the BBC and voted for by the public.

The 14 species of Finches he researched in the Galápagos Islands are affectionately named "Darwin's Finches" in honour of his legacy.

The writings of Charles Darwin on the Web The most complete collection of Darwin's work ever published- with original page numbers, illustrations etc; includes search tool.

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It uses material from the Wikipedia article "Charles Darwin".